Week 1 [Aug 12] - Topics

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm. A programming paradigm guides programmers to analyze programming problems, and structure programming solutions, in a specific way.

Programming languages have traditionally divided the world into two parts—data and operations on data. Data is static and immutable, except as the operations may change it. The procedures and functions that operate on data have no lasting state of their own; they’re useful only in their ability to affect data.

This division is, of course, grounded in the way computers work, so it’s not one that you can easily ignore or push aside. Like the equally pervasive distinctions between matter and energy and between nouns and verbs, it forms the background against which we work. At some point, all programmers—even object-oriented programmers—must lay out the data structures that their programs will use and define the functions that will act on the data.

With a procedural programming language like C, that’s about all there is to it. The language may offer various kinds of support for organizing data and functions, but it won’t divide the world any differently. Functions and data structures are the basic elements of design.

Object-oriented programming doesn’t so much dispute this view of the world as restructure it at a higher level. It groups operations and data into modular units called objects and lets you combine objects into structured networks to form a complete program. In an object-oriented programming language, objects and object interactions are the basic elements of design.

_{-- Object-Oriented Programming with Objective-C, Apple}

Some other examples of programming paradigms are:

Some programming languages support multiple paradigms.

Every object has both state (data) and behavior (operations on data). In that, they’re not much different from ordinary physical objects. It’s easy to see how a mechanical device, such as a pocket watch or a piano, embodies both state and behavior. But almost anything that’s designed to do a job does, too. Even simple things with no moving parts such as an ordinary bottle combine state (how full the bottle is, whether or not it’s open, how warm its contents are) with behavior (the ability to dispense its contents at various flow rates, to be opened or closed, to withstand high or low temperatures).

It’s this resemblance to real things that gives objects much of their power and appeal. They can not only model components of real systems, but equally as well fulfill assigned roles as components in software systems.

_{-- Object-Oriented Programming with Objective-C, Apple}

Object Oriented Programming (OOP) views the world as a network of interacting objects.

OOP solutions try to create a similar object network inside the computer’s memory – a sort of a virtual simulation of the corresponding real world scenario – so that a similar result can be achieved programmatically.

OOP does not demand that the virtual world object network follow the real world exactly.

Every object has both state (data) and behavior (operations on data).

Every object has an interface and an implementation.

Every real world object has:

• an interface through which other objects can interact with it
• an implementation that supports the interface but may not be accessible to the other object

Similarly, every object in the virtual world has an interface and an implementation.

Objects interact by sending messages. Both real world and virtual world object interactions can be viewed as objects sending message to each other. The message can result in the sender object receiving a response and/or the receiver object’s state being changed. Furthermore, the result can vary based on which object received the message, even if the message is identical (see rows 1 and 2 in the example below).

The concept of Objects in OOP is an abstraction mechanism because it allows us to abstract away the lower level details and work with bigger granularity entities i.e. ignore details of data formats and the method implementation details and work at the level of objects.

Encapsulation protects an implementation from unintended actions and from inadvertent access.
_{-- Object-Oriented Programming with Objective-C, Apple}

An object is an encapsulation of some data and related behavior in terms of two aspects:

1. The packaging aspect: An object packages data and related behavior together into one self-contained unit.

2. The information hiding aspect: The data in an object is hidden from the outside world and are only accessible using the object's interface.

Writing an OOP program is essentially writing instructions that the computer will uses to,

1. create the virtual world of of the object network, and
2. provide it the inputs to produce the outcome we want.

A class contains instructions for creating a specific kind of objects. It turns out sometimes multiple objects keep the same type of data and have the same behavior because they are of the same kind. Instructions for creating a one kind (or ‘class’) of objects can be done once and that same instructions can be used to instantiate objects of that kind. We call such instructions a Class.

As you know,

• Defining a class introduces a new object type.
• Every object belongs to some object type; that is, it is an instance of some class.
• A class definition is like a template for objects: it specifies what attributes the objects have and what methods can operate on them.
• The new operator instantiates objects, that is, it creates new instances of a class.
• The methods that operate on an object type are defined in the class for that object.

public class Time {
    private int hour;
    private int minute;
    private int second;
}

You can give a class any name you like. The Java convention is to use PascalCase format for class names.

The code is usually placed in a file whose name matches the class e.g., the Time class should be in a file named Time.java.

When a class is public (e.g., the Time class in the above example) it can be used in other classes. But the instance variables that are private (e.g., the hour, minute and second attributes of the Time class) can only be accessed from inside the Time class.

Constructors

public Time() {
    hour = 0;
    minute = 0;
    second = 0;
}

public Time(int h, int m, int s) {
    hour = h;
    minute = m;
    second = s;
}

this keyword

public Time(int hour, int minute, int second) {
    this.hour = hour;
    this.minute = minute;
    this.second = second;
}

public Time() {
    this(0, 0, 0); // call the overloaded constructor
}

public Time(int hour, int minute, int second) {
    // ...
}

public int secondsSinceMidnight() {
    return hour*60*60 + minute*60 + second;
}

Time t = new Time(0, 2, 5);
System.out.println(t.secondsSinceMidnight() + " seconds since midnight!");

As the instance variables of Time are private, you can access them from within the Time class only. To compensate, you can provide methods to access attributes:

public int getHour() {
    return hour;
}

public int getMinute() {
    return minute;
}

public int getSecond() {
    return second;
}

Methods like these are formally called “accessors”, but more commonly referred to as getters. By convention, the method that gets a variable named something is called getSomething.

Similarly, you can provide setter methods to modify attributes of a Time object:

public void setHour(int hour) {
    this.hour = hour;
}

public void setMinute(int minute) {
    this.minute = minute;
}

public void setSecond(int second) {
    this.second = second;
}

While all objects of a class has the same attributes, each object has its own copy of the attribute value.

However, some attributes are not suitable to be maintained by individual objects. Instead, they should be maintained centrally, shared by all objects of the class. They are like ‘global variables’ but attached to a specific class. Such variables whose value is shared by all instances of a class are called class-level attributes.

Similarly, when a normal method is being called, a message is being sent to the receiving object and the result may depend on the receiving object.

However, there can be methods related to a specific class but not suitable for sending message to a specific object of that class. Such methods that are called using the class instead of a specific instance are called class-level methods.

Class-level attributes and methods are collectively called class-level members (also called static members sometimes because some programming languages use the keyword static to identify class-level members). They are to be accessed using the class name rather than an instance of the class.

The content below is an extract from -- Java Tutorial, with slight adaptations.

public class Bicycle {

    private int gear;
    private int speed;

    // an instance variable for the object ID
    private int id;

    // a class variable for the number of Bicycle objects instantiated
    private static int numberOfBicycles = 0;
        ...
}

public class Bicycle {

    private int gear;
    private int speed;

    private int id;

    private static int numberOfBicycles = 0;


    public Bicycle(int startSpeed, int startGear) {
        gear = startGear;
        speed = startSpeed;

        numberOfBicycles++;
        id = numberOfBicycles;
    }

    public int getID() {
        return id;
    }

    public static int getNumberOfBicycles() {
        return numberOfBicycles;
    }

    public int getGear(){
        return gear;
    }

    public void setGear(int newValue) {
        gear = newValue;
    }

    public int getSpeed() {
        return speed;
    }

    // ...

}

An Enumeration is a fixed set of values that can be considered as a data type. An enumeration is often useful when using a regular data type such as int or String would allow invalid values to be assigned to a variable.

You can define an enum type by using the enum keyword. Because they are constants, the names of an enum type's fields are in uppercase letters e.g., FLAG_SUCCESS by convention.

public enum Day {
    SUNDAY, MONDAY, TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY,
    THURSDAY, FRIDAY, SATURDAY
}

Day today = Day.MONDAY;
Day[] holidays = new Day[]{Day.SATURDAY, Day.SUNDAY};

switch (today) {
case SATURDAY:
case SUNDAY:
    System.out.println("It's the weekend");
    break;
default:
    System.out.println("It's a week day");
}

Note that while enumerations are usually a simple set of fixed values, Java enumerations can have behaviors too, as explained in this tutorial from -- Java Tutorial

The OOP concept Inheritance allows you to define a new class based on an existing class.

• Other names for Base class: Parent class, Super class
• Other names for Derived class: Child class, Sub class, Extended class

A superclass is said to be more general than the subclass. Conversely, a subclass is said to be more specialized than the superclass.

Applying inheritance on a group of similar classes can result in the common parts among classes being extracted into more general classes.

Inheritance implies the derived class can be considered as a sub-type of the base class (and the base class is a super-type of the derived class), resulting in an is a relationship.

Inheritance does not necessarily mean a sub-type relationship exists. However, the two often go hand-in-hand. For simplicity, at this point let us assume inheritance implies a sub-type relationship.

Inheritance relationships through a chain of classes can result in inheritance hierarchies (aka inheritance trees).

Two inheritance hierarchies/trees are given below. Note that the triangle points to the parent class. Observe how the Parrot is a Bird as well as it is an Animal.

Multiple Inheritance is when a class inherits directly from multiple classes. Multiple inheritance among classes is allowed in some languages (e.g., Python, C++) but not in other languages (e.g., Java, C#).

The Honey class inherits from the Food class and the Medicine class because honey can be consumed as a food as well as a medicine (in some oriental medicine practices). Similarly, a Car is an Vehicle, an Asset and a Liability.

Method overloading is when there are multiple methods with the same name but different type signatures. Overloading is used to indicate that multiple operations do similar things but take different parameters.

Method overriding is when a sub-class changes the behavior inherited from the parent class by re-implementing the method. Overridden methods have the same name, same type signature, and same return type.

Given below is an extract from the -- Java Tutorial, with slight adaptations.

public class Bicycle {

    public int gear;
    public int speed;

    public Bicycle(int startSpeed, int startGear) {
        gear = startGear;
        speed = startSpeed;
    }

    public void setGear(int newValue) {
        gear = newValue;
    }

    public void applyBrake(int decrement) {
        speed -= decrement;
    }

    public void speedUp(int increment) {
        speed += increment;
    }

}

public class MountainBike extends Bicycle {

    // the MountainBike subclass adds one field
    public int seatHeight;

    // the MountainBike subclass has one constructor
    public MountainBike(int startHeight, int startSpeed, int startGear) {
        super(startSpeed, startGear);
        seatHeight = startHeight;
    }

    // the MountainBike subclass adds one method
    public void setHeight(int newValue) {
        seatHeight = newValue;
    }
}

public class Superclass {

    public void printMethod() {
        System.out.println("Printed in Superclass.");
    }
}

public class Subclass extends Superclass {

    // overrides printMethod in Superclass
    public void printMethod() {
        super.printMethod();
        System.out.println("Printed in Subclass");
    }
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        Subclass s = new Subclass();
        s.printMethod();
    }
}

Printed in Superclass.
Printed in Subclass

public MountainBike(int startHeight, int startSpeed, int startGear) {
    super(startSpeed, startGear);
    seatHeight = startHeight;
}

Polymorphism allows you to write code targeting superclass objects, use that code on subclass objects, and achieve possibly different results based on the actual class of the object.

Polymorphism literally means "ability to take many forms".

Java is a strongly-typed language which means the code works with only the object types that it targets.

public class PetShelter {
    private static Cat[] cats = new Cat[]{
            new Cat("Mittens"),
            new Cat("Snowball")};

    public static void main(String[] args) {
        for (Cat c: cats){
            System.out.println(c.speak());
        }
    }
}

Mittens: Meow
Snowball: Meow

public class Cat {
    public Cat(String name) {
        super(name);
    }

    public String speak() {
        return name + ": Meow";
    }
}

This strong-typing can lead to unnecessary verbosity caused by repetitive similar code that do similar things with different object types.

public class PetShelter {
    private static Cat[] cats = new Cat[]{
            new Cat("Mittens"),
            new Cat("Snowball")};
    private static Dog[] dogs = new Dog[]{
            new Dog("Spot")};

    public static void main(String[] args) {
        for (Cat c: cats){
            System.out.println(c.speak());
        }
        for(Dog d: dogs){
            System.out.println(d.speak());
        }
    }
}

Mittens: Meow
Snowball: Meow
Spot: Woof

public class Dog {
    public Dog(String name) {
        super(name);
    }

    public String speak() {
        return name + ": Woof";
    }
}

A better way is to take advantage of polymorphism to write code that targets a superclass so that it works with any subclass objects.

public class PetShelter2 {
    private static Animal[] animals = new Animal[]{
            new Cat("Mittens"),
            new Cat("Snowball"),
            new Dog("Spot")};

    public static void main(String[] args) {
        for (Animal a: animals){
            System.out.println(a.speak());
        }
    }
}

Mittens: Meow
Snowball: Meow
Spot: Woof

public class Animal {

    protected String name;

    public Animal(String name){
        this.name = name;
    }
    public String speak(){
        return name;
    }
}

public class Cat extends Animal {
    public Cat(String name) {
        super(name);
    }

    @Override
    public String speak() {
        return name + ": Meow";
    }
}

public class Dog extends Animal {
    public Dog(String name) {
        super(name);
    }

    @Override
    public String speak() {
        return name + ": Woof";
    }
}

Polymorphic code is better in several ways:

• It is shorter.
• It is simpler.
• It is more flexible (in the above example, the main method will work even if we add more animal types).

You can declare a class as abstract when a class is merely a representation of commonalities among its subclasses in which case it does not make sense to instantiate objects of that class.

A class that has an abstract method becomes an abstract class because the class definition is incomplete (due to the missing method body) and it is not possible to create objects using an incomplete class definition.

In Java, an abstract method is declared with the keyword abstract and given without an implementation. If a class includes abstract methods, then the class itself must be declared abstract.

public abstract class Animal {

    protected String name;

    public Animal(String name){
        this.name = name;
    }
    public abstract String speak();
}

An abstract class is declared with the keyword abstract. Abstract classes can be used as reference type but cannot be instantiated.

public abstract class Account {

    int number;

    void close(){
        //...
    }
}

In Java, even a class that does not have any abstract methods can be declared as an abstract class.

When an abstract class is subclassed, the subclass should provides implementations for all of the abstract methods in its superclass or else the subclass must also be declared abstract.

public abstract class Feline extends Animal {
    public Feline(String name) {
        super(name);
    }

}

public class DomesticCat extends Feline {
    public DomesticCat(String name) {
        super(name);
    }

    @Override
    public String speak() {
        return "Meow";
    }
}

An interface is a behavior specification i.e. a collection of method specifications. If a class implements the interface, it means the class is able to support the behaviors specified by the said interface.

There are a number of situations in software engineering when it is important for disparate groups of programmers to agree to a "contract" that spells out how their software interacts. Each group should be able to write their code without any knowledge of how the other group's code is written. Generally speaking, interfaces are such contracts. _{--Oracle Docs on Java}

A class implementing an interface results in an is-a relationship, just like in class inheritance.

The text given in this section borrows some explanations and code examples from the -- Java Tutorial.

In Java, an interface is a reference type, similar to a class, mainly containing method signatures. Defining an interface is similar to creating a new class except it uses the keyword interface in place of class.

public interface DrivableVehicle {
    void turn(Direction direction);
    void changeLanes(Direction direction);
    void signalTurn(Direction direction, boolean signalOn);
    // more method signatures
}

Interfaces cannot be instantiated—they can only be implemented by classes. When an instantiable class implements an interface, indicated by the keyword implements, it provides a method body for each of the methods declared in the interface.

public class CarModelX implements DrivableVehicle {

    @Override
    public void turn(Direction direction) {
       // implementation
    }

    // implementation of other methods
}

An interface can be used as a type e.g., DrivableVechile dv = new CarModelX();.

Interfaces can inherit from other interfaces using the extends keyword, similar to a class inheriting another.

public interface SelfDrivableVehicle extends DrivableVehicle {
   void goToAutoPilotMode();
}

Furthermore, Java allows multiple inheritance among interfaces. A Java interface can inherit multiple other interfaces. A Java class can implement multiple interfaces (and inherit from one class).

The design below is allowed by Java. In case you are not familiar with UML notation used: solid lines indicate normal inheritance; dashed lines indicate interface inheritance; the triangle points to the parent.

1. Staff interface inherits (note the solid lines) the interfaces TaxPayer and Citizen.
2. TA class implements both Student interface and the Staff interface.
3. Because of point 1 above, TA class has to implement all methods in the interfaces TaxPayer and Citizen.
4. Because of points 1,2,3, a TA is a Staff, is a TaxPayer and is a Citizen.

Interfaces can also contain constants and static methods.

public class Account{

  public static final double MAX_BALANCE = 1000000.0;

}

public interface DrivableVehicle {

    int MAX_SPEED = 150;

    static boolean isSpeedAllowed(int speed){
        return speed <= MAX_SPEED;
    }

    void turn(Direction direction);
    void changeLanes(Direction direction);
    void signalTurn(Direction direction, boolean signalOn);
    // more method signatures
}

Interfaces can contain default method implementations and nested types. They are not covered here.

Every instance of a subclass is an instance of the superclass, but not vice-versa. As a result, inheritance allows substitutability : the ability to substitute a child class object where a parent class object is expected.

an Academic is an instance of a Staff, but a Staff is not necessarily an instance of an Academic. i.e. wherever an object of the superclass is expected, it can be substituted by an object of any of its subclasses.

The following code is valid because an AcademicStaff object is substitutable as a Staff object.

Staff staff = new AcademicStaff (); // OK

But the following code is not valid because staff is declared as a Staff type and therefore its value may or may not be of type AcademicStaff, which is the type expected by variable academicStaff.

Staff staff;
...
AcademicStaff academicStaff = staff; // Not OK

Overridden methods are resolved using dynamic binding, and therefore resolves to the implementation in the actual type of the object.

Paradigms → OOP → Inheritance →

Overriding

Method overriding is when a sub-class changes the behavior inherited from the parent class by re-implementing the method. Overridden methods have the same name, same type signature, and same return type.

Consider the following case of EvaluationReport class inheriting the Report class:

Report methods	EvaluationReport methods	Overrides?
print()	print()	Yes
write(String)	write(String)	Yes
read():String	read(int):String	No. Reason: the two methods have different signatures; This is a case of overloading (rather than overriding).

Paradigms → OOP → Inheritance →

Overloading

Method overloading is when there are multiple methods with the same name but different type signatures. Overloading is used to indicate that multiple operations do similar things but take different parameters.

Type Signature: The type signature of an operation is the type sequence of the parameters. The return type and parameter names are not part of the type signature. However, the parameter order is significant.

Example:

Method	Type Signature
int add(int X, int Y)	(int, int)
void add(int A, int B)	(int, int)
void m(int X, double Y)	(int, double)
void m(double X, int Y)	(double, int)

In the case below, the calculate method is overloaded because the two methods have the same name but different type signatures (String) and (int)

• calculate(String): void
• calculate(int): void

Which of these methods override another method? A is the parent class. B inherits A.

• a
• b
• c
• d
• e

d

Explanation: Method overriding requires a method in a child class to use the same method name and same parameter sequence used by one of its ancestors

void adjustSalary(int byPercent) {
    for (Staff s: staff) {
        s.adjustSalary(byPercent);
    }
}

In contrast, overloaded methods are resolved using static binding.

class Account {

    Account () {
        // Signature: ()
        ...
    }

    Account (String name, String number, double balance) {
        // Signature: (String, String, double)
        ...
    }
}

void calculateGrade (int[] averages) { ... }
void calculateGrade (String matric) { ... }

Three concepts combine to achieve polymorphism: substitutability, operation overriding, and dynamic binding.

• Substitutability: Because of substitutability, you can write code that expects object of a parent class and yet use that code with objects of child classes. That is how polymorphism is able to treat objects of different types as one type.
• Overriding: To get polymorphic behavior from an operation, the operation in the superclass needs to be overridden in each of the subclasses. That is how overriding allows objects of different subclasses to display different behaviors in response to the same method call.
• Dynamic binding: Calls to overridden methods are bound to the implementation of the actual object's class dynamically during the runtime. That is how the polymorphic code can call the method of the parent class and yet execute the implementation of the child class.

This section uses extracts from the -- Java Tutorial, with some adaptations.

A collection — sometimes called a container — is simply an object that groups multiple elements into a single unit. Collections are used to store, retrieve, manipulate, and communicate aggregate data.

The collections framework is a unified architecture for representing and manipulating collections. It contains the following:

• Interfaces: These are abstract data types that represent collections. Interfaces allow collections to be manipulated independently of the details of their representation.
  Example: the List<E> interface can be used to manipulate list-like collections which may be implemented in different ways such as ArrayList<E> or LinkedList<E>.
  

• Implementations: These are the concrete implementations of the collection interfaces. In essence, they are reusable data structures.
  Example: the ArrayList<E> class implements the List<E> interface while the HashMap<K, V> class implements the Map<K, V> interface.
  

• Algorithms: These are the methods that perform useful computations, such as searching and sorting, on objects that implement collection interfaces. The algorithms are said to be polymorphic: that is, the same method can be used on many different implementations of the appropriate collection interface.
  Example: the sort(List<E>) method can sort a collection that implements the List<E> interface.

A well-known example of collections frameworks is the C++ Standard Template Library (STL). Although both are collections frameworks and the syntax look similar, note that there are important philosophical and implementation differences between the two.

The following list describes the core collection interfaces:

• Collection — the root of the collection hierarchy. A collection represents a group of objects known as its elements. The Collection interface is the least common denominator that all collections implement and is used to pass collections around and to manipulate them when maximum generality is desired. Some types of collections allow duplicate elements, and others do not. Some are ordered and others are unordered. The Java platform doesn't provide any direct implementations of this interface but provides implementations of more specific subinterfaces, such as Set and List. Also see the Collection API.

• Set — a collection that cannot contain duplicate elements. This interface models the mathematical set abstraction and is used to represent sets, such as the cards comprising a poker hand, the courses making up a student's schedule, or the processes running on a machine. Also see the Set API.

• List — an ordered collection (sometimes called a sequence). Lists can contain duplicate elements. The user of a List generally has precise control over where in the list each element is inserted and can access elements by their integer index (position). Also see the List API.

• Queue — a collection used to hold multiple elements prior to processing. Besides basic Collection operations, a Queue provides additional insertion, extraction, and inspection operations. Also see the Queue API.

• Map — an object that maps keys to values. A Map cannot contain duplicate keys; each key can map to at most one value. Also see the Map API.

• Others: Deque, SortedSet, SortedMap

The ArrayList class is a resizable-array implementation of the List interface. Unlike a normal array, an ArrayList can grow in size as you add more items to it. The example below illustrate some of the useful methods of the ArrayList class using an ArrayList of String objects.

import java.util.ArrayList;

public class ArrayListDemo {

    public static void main(String args[]) {
        ArrayList<String> items = new ArrayList<>();

        System.out.println("Before adding any items:" + items);

        items.add("Apple");
        items.add("Box");
        items.add("Cup");
        items.add("Dart");
        print("After adding four items: " + items);

        items.remove("Box"); // remove item "Box"
        print("After removing Box: " + items);

        items.add(1, "Banana"); // add "Banana" at index 1
        print("After adding Banana: " + items);

        items.add("Egg"); // add "Egg", will be added to the end
        items.add("Cup"); // add another "Cup"
        print("After adding Egg: " + items);

        print("Number of items: " + items.size());

        print("Index of Cup: " + items.indexOf("Cup"));
        print("Index of Zebra: " + items.indexOf("Zebra"));

        print("Item at index 3 is: " + items.get(2));

        print("Do we have a Box?: " + items.contains("Box"));
        print("Do we have an Apple?: " + items.contains("Apple"));

        items.clear();
        print("After clearing: " + items);
    }

    private static void print(String text) {
        System.out.println(text);
    }
}

Before adding any items:[]
After adding four items: [Apple, Box, Cup, Dart]
After removing Box: [Apple, Cup, Dart]
After adding Banana: [Apple, Banana, Cup, Dart]
After adding Egg: [Apple, Banana, Cup, Dart, Egg, Cup]
Number of items: 6
Index of Cup: 2
Index of Zebra: -1
Item at index 3 is: Cup
Do we have a Box?: false
Do we have an Apple?: true
After clearing: []

[Try the above code on Repl.it]

HashMap is an implementation of the Map interface. It allows you to store a collection of key-value pairs. The example below illustrates how to use a HashMap<String, Point> to maintain a list of coordinates and their identifiers e.g., the identifier x1 is used to identify the point 0,0 where x1 is the key and 0,0 is the value.

import java.awt.Point;
import java.util.HashMap;
import java.util.Map;

public class HashMapDemo {
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        HashMap<String, Point> points = new HashMap<>();

        // put the key-value pairs in the HashMap
        points.put("x1", new Point(0, 0));
        points.put("x2", new Point(0, 5));
        points.put("x3", new Point(5, 5));
        points.put("x4", new Point(5, 0));

        // retrieve a value for a key using the get method
        print("Coordinates of x1: " + pointAsString(points.get("x1")));

        // check if a key or a value exists
        print("Key x1 exists? " + points.containsKey("x1"));
        print("Key x1 exists? " + points.containsKey("y1"));
        print("Value (0,0) exists? " + points.containsValue(new Point(0, 0)));
        print("Value (1,2) exists? " + points.containsValue(new Point(1, 2)));

        // update the value of a key to a new value
        points.put("x1", new Point(-1,-1));

        // iterate over the entries
        for (Map.Entry<String, Point> entry : points.entrySet()) {
            print(entry.getKey() + " = " + pointAsString(entry.getValue()));
        }

        print("Number of keys: " + points.size());
        points.clear();
        print("Number of keys after clearing: " + points.size());

    }

    public static String pointAsString(Point p) {
        return "[" + p.x + "," + p.y + "]";
    }

    public static void print(String s) {
        System.out.println(s);
    }
}

Coordinates of x1: [0,0]
Key x1 exists? true
Key x1 exists? false
Value (0,0) exists? true
Value (1,2) exists? false
x1 = [-1,-1]
x2 = [0,5]
x3 = [5,5]
x4 = [5,0]
Number of keys: 4
Number of keys after clearing: 0

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Well-written applications include error-handling code that allows them to recover gracefully from unexpected errors. When an error occurs, the application may need to request user intervention, or it may be able to recover on its own. In extreme cases, the application may log the user off or shut down the system. --_Microsoft

Exceptions are used to deal with 'unusual' but not entirely unexpected situations that the program might encounter at run time.

Given below is an extract from the -- Java Tutorial, with some adaptations.

Most languages allow code that encountered an "exceptional" situation to encapsulate details of the situation in an Exception object and throw/raise that object so that another piece of code can catch it and deal with it. This is especially useful when the code that encountered the unusual situation does not know how to deal with it.

The extract below from the -- Java Tutorial (with slight adaptations) explains how exceptions are typically handled.

Advantages of exception handling in this way:

• The ability to propagate error information through the call stack.
• The separation of code that deals with 'unusual' situations from the code that does the 'usual' work.

The content below uses extracts from the -- Java Tutorial, with some adaptations.

A program can catch exceptions by using a combination of the try, catch blocks.

• The try block identifies a block of code in which an exception can occur.
• The catch block identifies a block of code, known as an exception handler, that can handle a particular type of exception.

public void writeList() {
    print("starting method");
    try {
        print("starting process");
        process();
        print("finishing process");

    } catch (IndexOutOfBoundsException e) {
        print("caught IOOBE");

    } catch (IOException e) {
        print("caught IOE");

    }
    print("finishing method");
}

You can use a finally block to specify code that is guaranteed to execute with or without the exception. This is the right place to close files, recover resources, and otherwise clean up after the code enclosed in the try block.

The writeList() method below has a finally block:

public void writeList() {
    print("starting method");
    try {
        print("starting process");
        process();
        print("finishing process");

    } catch (IndexOutOfBoundsException e) {
        print("caught IOOBE");

    } catch (IOException e) {
        print("caught IOE");

    } finally {
        // clean up
        print("cleaning up");
    }
    print("finishing method");
}

Some possible outputs:

• The try statement should contain at least one catch block or a finally block and may have multiple catch blocks.

• The class of the exception object indicates the type of exception thrown. The exception object can contain further information about the error, including an error message.

You can use the throw statement to throw an exception. The throw statement requires a throwable object as the argument.

if (size == 0) {
    throw new EmptyStackException();
}

In Java, Checked exceptions are subject to the Catch or Specify Requirement: code that might throw checked exceptions must be enclosed by either of the following:

• A try statement that catches the exception. The try must provide a handler for the exception.
• A method that specifies that it can throw the exception. The method must provide a throws clause that lists the exception.

Unchecked exceptions are not required to follow to the Catch or Specify Requirement but you can apply the requirement to them too.

public void writeList() throws IOException, IndexOutOfBoundsException {
    print("starting method");
    process();
    print("finishing method");
}

Some possible outputs:

Java comes with a collection of built-in exception classes that you can use. When they are not enough, it is possible to create your own exception classes.

In general, use exceptions only for 'unusual' conditions. Use normal return statements to pass control to the caller for conditions that are 'normal'.